Darwin observed several facts which contradicted his theory of natural- or survival selection The WritePass Journal

Darwin observed several facts which contradicted his theory of natural- or survival selection Introduction Darwin observed several facts which contradicted his theory of natural- or survival selection IntroductionDiscussionPhysical attractivenesCompetitivenessNurturing qualitiesSociabilityStatusConclusionRelated Introduction Darwin observed several facts which contradicted his theory of natural- or survival selection, one of which was the dazzling plumage of peacocks that appeared to have nothing to do with survival, and in fact seemed to be more of an open invitation to potential predators. The fact that peahens prefer to mate with males who have the most brilliant and luminescent plumage, and that males are often larger than females in species in which they need to engage in physical combat in competition over females, (Crawford Krebbs, 2008) lead to Darwin’s second evolutionary theory: the theory of sexual selection. Competition among members of the same species for reproductively relevant resources is the pillar of Darwin’s (1859) theory of natural selection (West-Eberhard, 1979) and he proposed two primary ways in which sexual selection could operate. Firstly, intrasexual competition; consisting of competition between members of one sex, the result of which leads to mating access with the opposite sex, and secondly, intersexual selection or preferential mate choice. Intersexual selection refers to the tendency of one sex to choose as mates certain members of the opposite sex based on specifically desired qualities. Darwin referred to intersexual selection as â€Å"female choice† because he observed that throughout the animal kingdom females were prone to be more discriminating than males in their mating choices, (Crawford, Crebs 2008). In the past several decades the evolutionary perspective on interpersonal attraction and mate selection has gained increased attention and proposes that humans are governed by rules of attraction and mate selection that prioritize the conception, birth, and survival of their offspring. (Mahfouz, et al. 2008). Intrasexual selection in humans appears to operate mostly indirectly, through social hierarchies, rather than through direct competition as can be observed in the animal kingdom, e.g. two antelopes locking horns in com bat over a female. In this way patterns of sexual selection do not immediately involve environmental changes, and neutral or even dysfunctional traits could potentially develop through female choice (Buss, 1986). This begs the important question; what are the preferred characteristics valued by human beings when it comes to mating? One of the main strategies of competition in mating is to make oneself more attractive than others of the same sex by use of specific tactics and displaying certain resources (Buss, 1988).   Trivers (1972) further illuminated Darwin’s theory of sexual selection when he suggested that the one driving force behind sexual selection is the relative parental contribution of both sexes in their offspring. Males should adopt a reproductive strategy which maximizes the opportunity to mate, and females should adopt a strategy that relies on choice, only mating once the best male out of a number has been identified. According to Buss (1986) under conditions of female choice, males are expected to display the traits most valued by females, and may compete for elevation in hierarchies while women tend to favour high-status men. Buss (1988) conducted a number of studies with the hypothesis in mind that patterns of human intrasexual competition can be predicted from knowledge of mate sele ction criteria, and examined preferences in partner choice. He found three replicated sex differences; men more than women preferred mates who were physically attractive, and women more than men preferred mates who showed good earning potential and who were college educated. Thus, it would seem that females can increase their reproductive success by choosing a man of high status with sufficient resources, thereby able to provide material security to successfully raise offspring. Males, on the other hand, increase their reproductive success by choosing women who are receptive, fertile, and possesses characteristics suggestive of being a good mother (Singh, 1993). Where as the reproductive value of a man can be easily assessed by looking at external symbols of power such as social- and economical standing, women’s reproductive value is concealed. However, from an evolutionary based perspective it is assumed that physical attractiveness is primarily a reflection of a womanâ€⠄¢s reproductive success (Buss, 1987), and is portrayed in this way by certain desired physical characteristics like full lips, clear skin, clear eyes, an abundance of hair, symmetry, good muscle tone, youth (Buss, 1993) and lower body mass (Swami and Furnham, 2007). From an evolutionary viewpoint, both sexes should have evolved a preference for mates that possess these desired qualities, increasing levels of competition to project such characteristics and ensure reproductive success. The number of options available when deciding on a mate has become potentially overwhelming in modern times. Not only are there more people in our local environment, but modern dating methods present us with more options than humans have previously had to deal with. However, research suggests that mate qualities valued by people offline are the same as those valued by people online (Lenton, et al., 2008), and that online interaction is driven by the same needs as face-to-face interaction. Thus, online interaction should not be regarded as a separate arena but as an integrated part of modern social life (Wellman Hathornthwaite, 2002). A study by Hitch et al. (2005) which looked at desirable qualities as projected on online dating sites found the most striking difference across gender to be related to earnings and education. Although both sexes show a preference for partners with higher incomes, this preferences is much more pronounced for women, as also found in Buss’ studies. It was also found that although users prefer a partner with a similar education level, men tended to have a strong dislike for a better educated partner, where as women avoided less educated men. In another study focused on the importance attached to physical attractive qualities, Hancock and Toma (2009) studied profile pictures of women on dating websites by looking at self-presentation and in particular at levels of deception in the form of the number of discrepancies as contained in photographs . They assumed that from an evolutionary perspective youthfulness and physical attractiveness would be qualities valued more by women than by men, and found that women’s photographs were indeed less accurate, with discrepancies relating to mentioned weight, hair length and age as preferred by men, and higher incidences of retouching photos. Although earlier studies focused on self-presentation on internet dating websites, researchers have recently shifted their attention to self-pr esentation in less anonymous settings like social networking sites.   A study by Ellison et al. (2006) found that people tend to act differently in social networking environments when compared to those interacting in anonymous settings. This finding had vast implications in identity formation in the online world, as it basically indicated that online self-presentation varies according to the nature of the setting. Along with dating sites, friend-networking websites like MySpace and Facebook have become very popular, and offer a highly controlled environment for self-presentational behaviour- an ideal setting for impression management (Mehdizadeh, 2010). A study by Zhao (2008) examined identity construction on Facebook, with the main hypothesis being that Facebook users would engage in what internet dating sites users engage in- the presentation of their hoped-for possible selves, defined as socially desirable identities an individual aim to construct, in this case online. They dis tinguished between implicit identity claims, which involved the display of photos and profile pictures, and explicit identity claims, involving verbal descriptions of the self under the â€Å"About me† section of facebook. However, it was found that this was the least elaborated of identity strategies and photos were mainly used for identity construction. Results were consistent with internet dating studies and the way in which a self which is more socially desirable was projected. The construction of the self online has been found to differ between the sexes because different kinds of social roles come into play during interpersonal communication (Archer, 1989). Women, unlike men, tend to place greater importance on sexual-interpersonal aspects of self-definition, and a review of gender differences in identity development revealed few gender differences, apart from in the areas of sexuality and family roles, supporting findings that relationships are more important to womenà ¢â‚¬â„¢s identity formation than to men’s (Manago, 2008). Research highlights that it is critical that social scientists don’t view Cyberspace as one generic space, but rather to consider how different spaces online are constructed (Whitty, 2007). Specific characteristics of internet communication may affect gender self-presentation, and the way in which Facebook allows users to present a very strategic presentation of their selves and to control what remains hidden and what is revealed, makes it a fascinating medium to study. The objectives of the current study was to look at the effect of gender and relationship status on the projection of reproductively valued qualities on Facebook from an evolutionary perspective. From an evolutionary viewpoint one would expect similar gender differences as was found in Buss’ studies, with women placing more of an emphasis on physical attractiveness and youth and the way this is projected on Facebook, and men projecting qualities which portray status and competitiveness. The projection of sociability was correlated with â€Å"warmth† and it was predicted that women would score significantly higher on the projection of this characteristic, with single women scoring significantly higher overall. Important to note is that the projection of these mentioned reproductively valued qualities would be of an unconscious- and implicit nature, considering that Facebook is primarily seen as a social networking website, rather than as a virtual arena designed to meet m embers of the opposite sex, as is the case with online dating websites. Both gender and relationship differences in the projection of   physical attractiveness, competitiveness, nurturing qualities, status and sociability were predicted. It was predicted that married persons, already being in a position of long term mating, would project these qualities significantly less than single persons. There were four main hypotheses: Hypothesis one: Single males will score significantly higher on projected status and -competitiveness than single females. Hypothesis two: Single females will score significantly higher on projected physical attractiveness, -nurturing qualities and -sociability than single males. Hypothesis three: Single males will score significantly higher on both projected status and -competitiveness in comparison to married males. Hypothesis four: Single females will score significantly higher on projected physical attractiveness, -nurturing qualities and -sociability than married females. Discussion Darwin’s theory of sexual selection suggests that desirable members of the opposite sex possess reproductively valuable assets over which members of the same sex compete. Gender differences typically exist when it comes to which reproductively relevant resources are valued by men and women. Females seem to increase their reproductive success by choosing a man of high status with sufficient resources, thereby able to provide material security to successfully raise offspring. Males, on the other hand, increase their reproductive success by choosing women who are receptive, fertile, and possesses characteristics suggestive of being a good mother (Singh, 1993). Research suggests that mate qualities valued by people offline are the same as those valued by people online (Lenton, et al., 2008) and studies investigating mating preferences on online dating websites display similar findings, with women going to significantly greater lengths than men to enhance physical attractiveness on    profile photos, and men emphasising their status and income to a significantly greater extend than women. The present study proposed that evolutionary differences between the sexes with regards to sexual selection should also exist in non-dating online environments like the social networking website, Facebook, with females placing more of on emphasis on projecting physical attractiveness, sociability and nurturing qualities, and males projecting competitiveness and status. Most of the hypotheses were confirmed and were consistent with other studies on mating preferences from an evolutionary viewpoint. Several conclusions can be drawn from this study. Firstly, support was found for significantly greater female than male use and perceived effectiveness of projecting physical attractiveness and nurturing qualities. Secondly, support was found that single women perceive the effectiveness of projecting physical attractiveness to a significantly greater extent than married females. T hirdly, support was found for significantly greater male than female use and perceived effectiveness of competitiveness. Fourthly, support was found that single persons perceived the use and effectiveness of projecting sociability as significantly greater than married persons. Finally, the perceived use and effectiveness of the projection of status did not vary significantly for either gender or relationship status. These findings provide evidence that mating preferences are also displayed implicitly in non-dating online environments where the main agenda is social networking, rather than attracting a mate. This implies that the projection of reproductively valued assets could also be an unconscious process, engrained in our evolutionary biological make-up. The results of this study will now be discussed in terms of each hypothesis, after which the practical implications of the study will be highlighted and   suggestions will finally be made on how future studies could utilize and expand these findings. Physical attractivenes As predicted, significant results were found for the projection of physical attractiveness for gender, with women scoring higher overall than men, and also for relationship status, with single persons scoring significantly higher than married persons. These findings provide evidence that pressure on women to appear young and attractive is just as prevalent in today’s society as it was when Darwin wrote his theory on sexual selection in 1871, noting that â€Å"In civilized life man is largely, but by no means exclusively, influenced in the choice of his wife by external appearance†, 1871. (p. 738).   The pressure to be beautiful can be most blatantly observed on dating websites where the intrasexual battle between women ensues as they compete for the attention of a potential partner, and rely solely on photos as a method to project physical characteristics, even lying about age and weight to appear more attractive (Hitsch et al., 2005). One study found that men were mo re likely to respond to an advertisement in which a woman identified herself as a recovering addict than to an ad in which the woman identified herself as obese (Minervini McAndrew, 2005). Findings of this study reveal Facebook to be just as a competitive virtual arena which exhibits similar characteristics to online dating websites, including the strategic way in which one’s projected physical attractiveness is manipulated and enhanced online. Women displayed considerably more of a tendency to change their profile pictures on a regular basis than men, thereby drawing attention to- and emphasizing their looks to a much greater extent than men. This tendency was particularly highlighted along single women. Considering that evolutionary biology rules out beauty for its own sake (Derry, 2008) these findings reflect the unconscious way in which women on Facebook project reproductively valued qualities to the opposite sex through the implicit medium of photography. Although facial attractiveness is expected to predict the popularity of both men and women, and emerged in virtually all dating studies based on real interactions as a powerful predictor of popularity (Asendorpf et al., 2011), women tend to score significantly higher on projected physical attractiveness in comparison to men, as also supported by the findings of this study. Further significant differences were found between single- and married persons, with single users projecting physical attractiveness more than married users. This supports predictions, and reflects that there is less pressure on married couples to emphasise physical attractiveness, which can be attributed to the fact that they are already in positions of long term mating, and there is thus less of a need to project this asset. Another interesting finding in the current study was that only 52% of single women listed their age, followed by 78% of married women, 88% of single men, and finally 94% of married men. This further highlights the pressure on women to appear youthful, and it is interesting to note that it is predominantly single women who do not choose to list their age. Considering that 78% of married females list their age, one can not generalize this finding to women in general. The conclusion which must thus be drawn is that single women tend to de-emphasize elements relating to age in an attempt to appear more youthful. It is also interesting to note that the average age of single women was 24 in comparison to married women who were aged 29 on average. Considering that married women were aged slightly older than single women, one would in fact expect them to be more secretive about their age. However, this research indicates findings to the contrary and highlights the reproductive value of appea ring young for single women. These findings are supported by various previous studies into mating preference that found both physical attractiveness and youth as indicative of health and fertility in women, and as valued significantly by men as sources of reproductive value (Buss et al., 1990; Buss Barnes, 1986; Buss et al., 2001; Buss Schmitt, 1993; Feingold, 1990, 1992; Kenrick Keefe, 1992; Kenrick, Keefe, Gabrielidis, Cornelius, 1996; Singh, 1993; Singh Young, 1995). Competitiveness Human beings tend to live in groups and all groups have status hierarchies, whether formal or informal, with reproductively valued resources usually abundant at the top rather than the bottom, creating steep levels of competition (Buss, 2001). Levels of   intrasexual competition also increase, especially among males, as male resource display is judged as more effective than female resource display when it comes to attracting a mate. Men more than women display characteristics that would lead to the likely acquisition of resources like ambition and industriousness (Buss, 1988). In the current study significant gender differences were found for the projection of competitiveness, with males overall scoring significantly higher than females, as predicted.   Previous studies found that men were more likely to display resources as a tactic of intrasexual competition than women, also linking to studies done on mating preferences as displayed on online dating websites which found that me n tended to project their status in society, as well as their income, to a much greater extent than women   (Hitsch et al., 2005, Toma et al., 2008, Mahfouz, 2008). Although projected levels of competitiveness is not viewed as directly projecting resources or income in the case of this study, it is seen as a powerful indicator of a male’s ability to succeed in allocating valuable resources such as financial income. Levels of competitiveness did not vary significantly between single- and married men as predicted, indicating that the projection of competitiveness is valued by males in general and not just single males. This could arguably be explained by the fact that, from an evolutionary viewpoint, men may have evolved over human evolutionary history a powerful need for sexual access to a large number of women (Buss, 1993) which in combination with the innate ability to father offspring until much later in life than women are capable of biologically, entails higher levels o f competitiveness to suffice throughout a male’s life. In one study men stated that they would ideally like to have more than 18 sex partners in their lifetimes, whereas women state that they would desire only 4 or 5 (Buss Schmitt, 1993), and these findings were replicated twice when 75% of men but 0% of the women approached by an attractive stranger of the opposite sex consented to a request for sex (Clark Hatfield, 1989). From an evolutionary viewpoint, marriage is a relatively modern concept, implying that gender differences with regards to intra- and intersexual competition have not changed dramatically in modern times. In this sense competitiveness leads to a higher position in the social hierarchy, and better chance of providing for one’s offspring, and should not significantly vary between single- and married men, as findings illustrate in this study The importance of physical characteristics in the female choice of a mate is prevalent throughout the animal kingdom, and one benefit of a woman in permanent mating conditions is the physical protection offered by a man, Buss (2003). Considering that levels of competitiveness was correlated with participation in sports, one could further explore the possibility that physical strength as displayed in sports is valued as a reproductive resource by women- supported by studies such as Buss (1995) which found that women valued physical protection abilities more than men, in both short-term and long-term mating. Thus, it is additionally also possible that men project physical strength by appearing â€Å"sporty† in profile photos as the reproductively valued asset of providing physical protection to female offspring. This could also account for the insignificant difference between single- and married males when it came to the projection of competitiveness, seeing that men can father (and thus protect) offspring until late in life. Nurturing qualities The current study predicted that women would score significantly higher on projected nurturing qualities than men, and this hypothesis was supported. Both single and married women projected nurturing qualities to a greater extent than males. Stereotypically women are nurturing, where as men are somewhat more aggressive and less person-centred. Traditionally sex differences have been explained by the process of socialization , and the way men and women are influenced by societal norms to play acceptable gender roles. However, from an evolutionary viewpoint men would need to exhibit higher levels of aggression, and competitiveness, supported by the findings of this study, to protect their positions in society where as women with lower levels of competition and higher investment in their offspring are expected to show more nurturing behaviours (Workman Reader). This study supports findings from previous research which highlight nurturing qualities in women as being innate, as illustrat ed in a study by Bernt (1986) in which it was shown that women are more attracted to intimate relationships than men (Berndt, 1986), and cross-cultural studies which suggests women to be more person-centred, in contrast to men who are more object-centred .There is also evidence that sex differences in nurturance has its origins in infancy, and a study by Simner (1971) found that infant girls more than infant boys were more likely to also start crying when they heard another baby cry,   than when hearing a loud noise (Workman Reader, 2001). Contrary to prediction single women did not score higher on projected nurturing qualities than married women with married women having the highest scores on projected nurturing qualities overall. A possible explanation for this could be that married women, who being married are in a more secure position to either have children- or already have children, are either consciously or unconsciously depicting salient nurturing qualities. This study also illustrates that the biological experiences of pregnancy and lactation generate a strong, instinctual drive in women to nurture (Silverstein, et al., 1999), as illustrated by the higher, although not significantly so, proportion of married women who exhibited nurturing qualities in this study versus single women. Sociability A significant difference between single- and married subjects was noted when it came to sociability, with single Facebook users projecting sociability to a greater extend than married users. This links to previous studies done on Facebook which found that most users attempted to project a socially desired self, claiming that they were â€Å"popular among friends†. Fierce competition was also noted among Facebook users for the size of social networks they claimed to possess, and competition to have the most amount of â€Å"friends†, Zhao (2008). Thus, it would seem that the desire to appear sociable or popular offline, also exists online. There is further   support for the importance of social skills as found in a study by Buss (1989) which studied mating preferences across 37 cultures and found that kindness, intelligence and social skills were listed as the top criteria for a potential mate. This supports the current study’s prediction, that single Facebook us ers would appear significantly more social than married users. However, unlike predicted there was no significant difference between men and women when it came to projected sociability, revealing that the projection of warmth towards others is just as important for single men as it is for single women. Significantly lower levels of projected sociability in married couples could be a reflection of lower levels of social activity as portrayed in profile pictures, perhaps as a result of spending more time with their partners or children, but could also indicate that there is less of a need to exhibit sociability, and thereby project popularity among friends . Status Status is closely correlated to financial income, and it was predicted that men more than women would display their status on Facebook, supporting studies such as one by Buss (1988) in which it was found that men more than women display characteristics that lead to the likely acquisition of resources, e.g. degree attainment.   However, this was not the case, and no significant differences in the projection of status were found between either men and women overall, or single- and married subjects. There could be several explanations for this, one relating to previous studies done on online dating websites which found that both sexes tended to favour members of the opposite sex with similar educational levels. Considering the overwhelming support that previous studies provide with regards to the importance that women attach to resource income as a reproductive value and status as a reflection of financial income, another explanation could lie in the obvious fact that Facebook is a so cial-, rather than dating network, and that popularity as illustrated with regards to exhibiting sociability, is highly valued. Thus, it would be just as important for women than for men to list their status in a virtual social network where one would expect similar levels of education among friends or acquaintances as a general rule. Also, Facebook is arguably not different from online dating websites where users, both male and female, tend to list their status as a formality, but in which one study men stated in a questionnaire that they did have a particularly strong distaste for a better educated partner, while women particularly avoided less educated men (Hitsch, 2005). Conclusion In conclusion, the implicit nature of photography and the unconscious way in which participants use it to project reproductively valued qualities to members of the opposite sex are particularly interesting findings. Facebook as a social networking website, in which users have control over self image and access to many tools with which to present themselves in a favourable way to others makes it a fascinating medium to further explore. Limitations and suggestions for future research should be noted. Suggestions for future studies include conducting a cross-cultural study to see if there are any significant differences to note. Secondly, exploring other functions on the social networking website, such as the number of friends- or social networks a user possess, additional photo albums, qualitative analysis of verbal descriptions under the â€Å"About me† section or status updates of users, etc. The vast amount of additional information available on Facebook could be used to supplement current findings, and other popular social networking sites such as MySpace could be researched in a similar fashion. Thirdly, different age groups could be tested for significant correlations- or differences. Fourthly, data could be collected in combination with questionnaires, supplementing findings. Fifthly, a study looking at specific differences between the explicit and implicit projection of reproductively valued qualities on Facebook could be conducted. Finally, there are many other traits which both sexes highly value in the opposite sex like displaying humour, good manners, sympathy, good grooming (Buss, 1988), similar values, honesty (Whitty, 2007) etc. and future studies could aim to include these. Although this study and its hypotheses were interpreted from an evolutionary perspective, additional theoretical accounts are possible, and it should be kept in mind that evolutionary explanations supplement, rather than replace traditional modes of explanation in psychology (Buss, 1988). These results may seen as the start of an exploration into social networking websites and how resource valued traits are unconsciously and implicitly projected to members of the opposite sex, but current social psychological accounts should also considered.

Collection of Happy Birthday Wish Quotations

Collection of Happy Birthday Wish Quotations There are birthday wishes and then there are birthday wishes. But to make a truly special birthday wish you have to blend together many beautiful phrases. Here are some quotes that I like to use in creating a personalized happy birthday wish. Frank SinatraMay you live to be 100 and may the last voice you hear be mine. Jonathan SwiftMay you live all the days of your life! William Butler YeatsFrom our birthday, until we die,Is but the winking of an eye. Lewis CarrollThere are three hundred and sixty-four days when you might get un-birthday presents and only one for birthday presents, you know. AnonymousA birthday is just the first day of another 365-day journey around the sun. Enjoy the trip. AnonymousThis card is filled with wishesFor a very special day,One that brings a world of joyAnd happiness your way-Its also filled with loving thoughtsEspecially meant for you,For youre the kind of personHappy things should happen to! AnonymousHope it addsSome special pleasureTo the hours of your dayTo know youre being thought ofIn the very warmest way...And when your birthdays over,Hope that youll remember, too,The same warm thoughts as alwaysWill keep going out to you! Emily DickinsonWe turn not older with years but newer every day . Frank Lloyd WrightYouth is a circumstance you cant do anything about. The trick is to grow up without getting old. Billy MillsYour life is a gift from the Creator. Your gift back to the Creator is what you do with your life. Bishop Richard CumberlandIt is better to wear out than to rust out.

International Arbitration and Islamic Law or Sharia Law Dissertation

International Arbitration and Islamic Law or Sharia Law - Dissertation Example There may be also generation of stipulations attached with the confidentiality of the proprietary information, evidence, backdrop, number of arbitrators, issues attached with arbitration and so on (Kohler & Stucki, 2004). Among the various definitions of arbitration one of the definitions can be mentioned in this case which is as follows: â€Å" two or more parties, faced with a dispute which they cannot resolve for themselves, agreeing that some private individual will resolve it for them and if the arbitration runs its full course†¦.it will not be settled by a compromise, but by a decision† (Born, 2009, p.217). History of arbitration Arbitration finds its roots in the Greek mythology as well as in the Bible (Moloff, 2008, p.186). In the maritime industries of the pre-colonial England as well as within the merchants of diverse trade background, the process of arbitration found its profound utilization. Prior to the industrial revolution, the process of arbitrage was high ly predominant among the American colonies and the process was regarded as an inexpensive and highly private although a voluntary mode highly depending with the ties of the communities as well as pressures for the effectiveness of the policies. The first permanent board of arbitration was established in 1768, by the New York Chamber of Commerce followed by the implementation of the primal comprehensive clause of arbitration although the availability was limited to a restricted number of disputants (Wolfe, 2006, p.432). The scenario widened its horizon with the herald of twentieth century with the necessity of making the process of arbitration an alternative method of dispute resolution. The process strengthened with the creation of organized labor movement. In 1925, the United States Congress enacted the New York Federal Arbitration (FAA) with the notion that the agreements to submit disputes to arbitration should be as enforceable as of any other contracts (Brunet, 2006, p.36). Wit h gradual crawling of time, after 1950s, lawmakers stressed that the process of arbitration can be implemented as a device of resolving international disputes. In 1998, Congress enacted the Alternative dispute Act (ADA) which led to the mandatory equipment of every federal district court for authorizing by local rules, the utilization of the alternative dispute resolution process in all civil actions and also led to the designation of a judge or other employee to be knowledgeable in ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) practices. In today’s world of complex legal milieu majority of the lawyers and litigators find it compulsory for the application of ADR processes with arbitration in particular (Bennett, 2009, pp. 9-12). Basic foundation for arbitration The basic foundation on which arbitration rests is that of the consensual nature embedded in it. No arbitration procedure will take place with the without the express consent of each party. The prerequisite of a consensual arbi tration agreement can be inspected as an assemblage of procedures which directs to the avoidance of the default jurisdiction of the domestic courts and hence it must be clearly demarcated. In most of the cases, the agreement of arbitration will require

Managing Human Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Managing Human Resources - Essay Example As a work motivational approach, Cummings and Worley (2009, p. 434) explained that rewards can either be intrinsic or extrinsic by nature. In line with this, intrinsic rewards include the use of sincere acknowledgement for a good performance whereas extrinsic rewards can be in a form of increased salary, stock options, work promotion, or bonus given to employees (Cummings and Worley, 2009, p. 434). As compared to the use of extrinsic rewards, it is easier to implement intrinsic rewards because HR managers can easily make it a habit to acknowledge the effort of each employee in making the organizational goal attainable rather than requesting the business owners and board of directors to increase the available fund which can be use to reward employees for any improvements in their work performance (Shamir et al., 1993). According to Pfeffer (1998, p. 110), HR managers often ask the question â€Å"how much to pay employees† or â€Å"how much compensation package should be includ ed in the company’s reward system† in order to increase the work performance of each employee. Pertaining to the importance of developing and implementing effective pay and reward system, this report will focus on discussing how internal factors (i.e. organizational vision and mission, organizational structure, organizational culture, business objectives and business strategies) and external factors (i.e. competitors’ pay and reward system that is heavily influenced by economic pressures, the current labour market condition, government implemented labour policies, legal issues concerning the basic labour requirements, and the global labour environment) could shape the organizational approaches when designing a business organization’s pay and reward system (Heneman, Fisher and Dixon, 2001; Zingheim, Ledford and Schuster, 1996). Based on the research findings, the researcher will analyze how each factor is link with the other identified factors when designin g pay and reward systems. Internal Factors that Shapes the Organizational Approaches when Designing Pay and Reward Systems Several research studies revealed that internal factors that could significantly affect the shaping of organizational approaches when designing pay and reward systems includes the organizational vision and mission, organizational structure, organizational culture, business objectives and business strategies (Heneman, Fisher and Dixon, 2001; Zingheim, Ledford and Schuster, 1996). Depending on organizational vision and mission, organizational structure, business objectives and business strategies, a business organization can develop a culture with regards to its accepted and widely practiced pay and rewards system. Communicating the organizational vision to the rest of the employees serves as a guide in the development and implementation of strategic planning. In line with this, a shared vision can be use as a guide in developing the kind of reward system which co uld effectively motivate each employee to improve their work performance (Worldatwork, 2007, p. 39). Upon analyzing the significance of organizational vision and mission in the designing of pay and rewards systems, it is necessary for HR managers to be familiar with the organizational

The Olay Brand Called Olay Evolution Marketing Essay

The Olay Brand Called Olay Evolution Marketing Essay INTRODUCTION The Procter Gamble Company (PG) is one of the worlds largest consumer goods companies. It markets more than 300 brands in the beauty, health, fabric, home, baby, family, and personal care product categories. The company operates in the Americas, Europe and Asia. It is headquartered in Cincinnati, Ohio, and employs about 135,000 people. CORPORATE OBJECTIVES The objective of Procter Gamble is that They will provide branded products and services of superior quality and value that improve the lives of the worlds consumers, now and for generations to come. As a result, consumers will reward us with leadership sales, profit and value creation, allowing our people, our shareholders and the communities in which we live and work to prosper. (http://www.uk.pg.com/company/aboutPG/purposeValuesPrinciples.html) CORPORATE STRATEGY Procter Gamble (PG), one of the worlds largest consumer goods companies is also a pioneer in the use of mass media. The company has used newspaper advertisements, radio and soap operas to advertise its popular brands like Crest, Pampers, Pantene and Folgers. During 1990-2000, however,  its rate of growth took a plunge. When AG Lafley took over as CEO in 2000, he gave PG a complete makeover with the focus on innovation and advertising. Since 2000, PG has been increasingly embracing targeted, viral and on-line marketing. (http://www.uk.pg.com/company/aboutPG/purposeValuesPrinciples.html) PROPOSED PRODUCT olayLogo87_Jul06.jpg Evolution Olay is a worldwide leader in skin care and have been trusted by women for fifty years. Graham Wulff, an innovative and entrepreneurial South African chemist developed the original formula at the beginning of the 1950s. Olay has eight global product lines offering a multiple of product. Product such as; Olay professional pro-X, Olay Definity, Olay Regenerist, Olay Total effect, Olay complete, Olay hydrate cleanse, Olay clarity, Olay body lotion, Olay touch of sun and Olay body cleansing (http://www.docstoc.com/docs/14719894/Oil-Of-Olay-Products). Skin care is evolving faster than ever with independent clinical trial and new standards in natural and organic cosmetics. Olay evolution will be a combination of Olay total effects (7 seven powerful anti-ageing in one) and Olay Definity (fight wrinkles, brown spot and discolouration). Many consumers want products that offer more than one benefit. So this product is expected to moisturize, fight free radicals and give the skin a more youthful appearance. This product would offer the costumer an ideal combination of the world most powerful skin care solution. Anti-aging is the fastest-growing skin segment, standing at $567.6 million, now representing the biggest category in skin care, surpassing facial cleansers which stand at $559.2 million. (http://www.allbusiness.com/population-demographics/demographic-groups/5517853-1.html) product-landing-definity_v6.jpg product-landing-total-effects.jpg Women are very particular when dealing with their face. They need to be convinced the product will deliver all the promised benefits. Women are willing to try new things and spend more money to look better and younger. Skin care attracts customers from all income level as most women like to take care of their appearance. The increase number of women working equates women with more money to spend and skin care is one of the favourite avenues for their spending. Based on Procter Gamble F4Q10 (Qtr End 06/30/2010) Earnings Call Transcript, Female Skin Care grew volume double digits with positive share trends. In the U.S., Olay all-outlet value share of the Facial Moisturizer segment was up almost two points behind the continued strength of the Olay Pro-X line and the Olay Regenerist Roller ball Eye Treatment innovation. Olay also had strong results in developing markets, more than doubling shipments in India, Saudi Arabia and the Philippines. Organic sales increased 5%, driven by 8% organic volume growth. (http://seekingalpha.com/article/218380-procter-gamble-f4q10-qtr-end-06-30-2010-earnings-call-transcript) Rate of Global skin care market 2002 and 2007 Country 2002 ( £M) 2009 ( £M) US 6,752.2 8,059.2 FRANCE 2,391.1 4,368.0 GERMANY 1,975.1 3,239.3 ITALY 1,440.0 2,340.4 SPAIN 956.4 1,897.9 UK 1,612.7 2,937.6 Source: Euro monitor international Below are the analyses of the business environment to back up the proposal. ANALYSIS OF BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT Every Business operates within an environment, these environments directly and indirectly affects the way those businesses function. Competition in the skin care industry tends to be more intense and there are many changes that can be regarded as threat and opportunity that it is important for managers to cope with. MACRO Political The political environment Relates to the pressures and opportunities brought by changes of the government and their views toward the skin care industry. Each government always have a mandate to regulate the use on non organic ingredients in most skin care product. Economic This Refers to economic factors and structures and such variables like the stock exchange, interest and inflation rates, the nations economic policies and performance, exchange rates, etc. Although PG is based in the US, it earns revenues, pay expenses, own assets and incur liabilities in countries using currencies other than the US dollar. As a result, increases or decreases in the value of the US dollar against other major currencies will affect the companys net operating revenues, operating income and the value of balance sheet items denominated in foreign currencies. Social Middle-aged women are very interested in skin care items that help them retain a more youthful appearance and complexion. Observing social factors helps organisations maintain their reputation among stakeholders. Technological Changes in technology can affect a company competitive position. Industries merge; new strategic groups emerge; currents products improve and the cost of production gets reduced by process innovation. Because the skin care industry is very competitive, the company necessitate taking advantage of the latest technology and revolutionary substances to create new product in order to maintain customers interest and loyalty. Environmental With global warming and carbon foot prints being big concerns, governments and scientists are encouraging companies and individuals to be more environmentally aware. PGs policy is to: Ensure its products, packaging and operations are safe for their employees, consumers and the environment. Reduce or prevent the environmental impact of products and packaging in their design, manufacture, distribution, use and disposal whenever possible. They support the sustainable use of resources and actively encourage reuse, recycling and composting. MICRO Buyer Power;  Consumer products companies face weak buyer power because customers are disjointed and have little influence on price or product. But considering the buyers of consumer products to be retailers rather than individuals, then these firms face very strong buyer power. One good example is the business relationship between wall-mart and PG (see swot analysis). Supplier Power; the company could face some amount of supplier power simply because of the costs incurred when switching suppliers. Notwithstanding, suppliers that do large amount of business with the company also are somewhat obliged to their customers; nonetheless, bargaining power for both the firms and their suppliers is probably limited. Threat of New Entrants;  Given the amount of capital investment needed to enter the skin care industry, the assumption is that threat of new entrants will be fairly low. Threat of Substitutes;  Within the skin care industry, brands thrive in helping to build a competitive advantage, but even the pricing power of brands can be scoured with substitutes. Threats to this product may arise from other anti-aging products such as; Avotone, Revitol, Ceramide C etc. Degree of Rivalry; Skin care industry is a very competitive market, taking advantage of the latest technology and revolutionary substances to create new product in order to maintain customers interest and loyalty will be very important. In doing so it will increase the companys competitive advantage over other top brands like Avon and Nivea Visage. INTERNAL The internal environment constitutes variables and forces within the control of the organisation. These variables are; conditions, entities,  events, and  factors  within an organization which  influence  its  activities  and  choices, its philosophy, particularly the  behaviour of the  employees. Other variables include; the  organisation mission statement,  leadership style, and its  culture. SWOT Analysis; this is a planning method use to evaluate the strength, weaknesses, opportunities and treat to a business. It involves specifying objectives of a business at the same time identifying the internal and external elements that will affect the business both positive and negative in the race to attain its stated objectives. Strengths Weaknesses Leading market position geared on a strong brand portfolio. Significant RD and market investment. Robust cash productivity Increase instances of product recall. Excessive dependant on Wal-mart. High product prices translated into sales volume decline and market share loss. Opportunities Threats Future growth plans- Increase concentration on its core attractive businesses and enhancing its customer base. Increase investment in manufacturing capacity in developing countries. Acquisitions to expand portfolio Counterfeit goods. Changing global retail scenario and rise of private labels. Commodity cost and currency exchange rate. Rising cost of energy prices Economic slowdown in US and Euro zone. (www.datamonitor.com) STRENGTHS Leading market position garnered on a strong brand portfolio With revenues of $79,029 million, PG is the worlds largest consumer products manufacturer, with its products reaching 4 billion people worldwide. PG is the 20th largest company in sales and the 9th largest company in profit among the Fortune 500 companies. The companys market capitalization in 2009 was roughly $150 billion, making it one of the 10 most valuable companies in the US. PG holds leading global market shares in a variety of categories, including baby care (33%), blades and razors (70%), feminine protection (37%), and fabric care (33%). The companys leadership position is built on its strong brand portfolio. Strong brand portfolio enables the company to achieve economies of scale in distribution and retain a strong bargaining position with retailers. Leading market position provides PG with significant competitive advantage as well as stabilizes the companys financial growth Significant RD and market investment. Being a consumer products company, PG relies heavily on innovation and continued marketing investments in order to establish a significant competitive advantage. As a result, the company has made significant investments in RD and marketing. Over the last decade, PG has invested more than $2 billion in consumer and market research (nearly twice that of its closest competitor, Unilever; and equal to the combined total of its other major competitors; Avon, Clorox Company, Colgate-Palmolive Company, Energizer Holdings, Henkel, Kimberly-Clark, LOreal, and Reckitt Benckiser). Virtually, all the organic sales growth delivered by PG in the past nine years has come from new brands and new or improved product innovation. PG also involves external innovation partners to boost its internal innovative capability, an approach it calls Connect and Develop. Currently, more than half of all product innovation coming from PG includes at least one major component from an external partner. PGs strong RD capabilities and a marketing-driven understanding of consumer needs are backed by significant marketing investments. The company invests more than $7 billion in advertising annually, consistently making PG one of the worlds largest advertisers. Strong focus on research and development allows PG to renew its product line at regular intervals, which boosts customer loyalty and revenue growth. Significant marketing investments to support its brands and a broad product portfolio help PG to remain at forefront in a competitive market. Robust cash productivity PGs cash productivity: the percentage of earnings converted into cash has averaged over 100% since 2001, consistently among the very best in the industry. This is primarily due to PGs strong focus on productivity, working-capital management and cost reduction. Furthermore, PG is equally rigorous about managing costs. The company has reduced overhead costs as a percentage of sales by more than 300 basis points since 2001. The cash productivity allows PG to maintain the companys excellent credit rating, to pay strong dividends, and to have the flexibility to invest in the business organically or through mergers and acquisitions. Therefore, robust cash productivity ensures that PG has the flexibility and the resources to invest in growth even in the most challenging environments. WEAKNESSES PG has been registering increasing instance of product recalls. One case in point is in November 2009, the company voluntarily recalled three lots of its Vicks Sinex nasal spray in the US, Germany and the UK. The recall was a precautionary step after finding the bacteria B. cepacia in a small amount of product made at its plant in Gross Gerau, Germany. In March 2010, PG voluntarily recalled its Pringles Restaurant Cravers Cheeseburger potato crisps and Pringles Family Faves Taco Night potato crisps in response to a recommendation from the Food Drug Administration (FDA) to the food industry to protect consumers from potential Salmonella exposure. Most recently in June 2010, PG voluntarily recalled a small percentage of 1-liter bottles of Scope Original Mint and Scope Peppermint mouthwash with malfunctioning child-resistant caps in the US and Canada. Recurrent product recalls could affect the brand image of the company, which would lead to low customer loyalty and brand equity. Excessive dependent on Wal-Mart PG is heavily dependent on Wal-Mart Stores (Wal-Mart) and its affiliates for generating major part of its revenue. Sales to Wal-Mart and its affiliates represented approximately 15% of its total revenue since 2006. High dependence upon a Wal-Mart reduces the bargaining power of the company. Also, Wal-Mart could use its bargaining power to impose unfavourable terms on the company. Any decrease in revenue from Wal-Mart could have a negative impact on the companys businesses. Hence, the loss of this customer will lead to a sharp decline in PGs revenues and also a loss of its market share. OPPRTUNITIES Future growth plans In order to grow in a highly competitive environment, PG is pursuing a clearly drafted strategy with focus on two areas: increasing concentration on its core attractive businesses and enhancing its customer base. The company is sharply focusing on its core attractive businesses (the beauty and health market segments and several household care categories) as these are fast-growing businesses. For instance, the global market for personal care products has annual sales of over $39.5 billion and is growing at a rate of around 5% annually. PG intends to increase its customer base by acquiring under served and unserved consumers. In line with this, the company is targeting developing markets; extending its distribution systems; and expanding its brand and product portfolio. Developing and emerging economies are expected to account for 90% of the worlds population by 2010, and this is expected to drive demand for fast moving consumer goods. Increased investment in manufacturing capacity in developing countries PG is planning the biggest increase in its manufacturing capacity in order to expand into categories and countries where it doesnt have a brand presence. The company is investing 4% of sales in capital spending, including funding for new manufacturing capacity to support future growth. Over the next five years, PG plans to add 20 new manufacturing facilities. Almost all of these facilities are in developing markets, and almost all will be multi-product category facilities. By focusing on developing markets, the company would reduce the cost of serving these markets while also being closer to regions with the greatest long term growth potential. Acquisitions to expand portfolio PG has made significant acquisitions in the recent past. For instance, in June 2009, the company acquired the Zirh skincare brand. Zirh is a leading super premium, male grooming brand available in high-end department stores, specialty outlets and online. Later in May 2010, PG entered into an agreement to acquire Natura Pet Products, a privately-held pet food business. Most recently, in July 2010, the company concluded its purchase of the Ambi Pur Brand from Sara Lee Corporation. Ambi Pur is a leading global air care brand with presence in 80 countries, and also has several toilet care products, with strong presence in Western Europe and Asia. These kinds of acquisitions will strengthen PGs presence across a range of categories and in turn augment its top line and bottom-line. THREATS Changing global retail scenario and rise of private labels PGs products are sold in a highly competitive global marketplace which is experiencing an increased trade concentration and the growing presence of large format retailers and discounters. With the growing trend toward retail trade consolidation, it is increasingly dependent on key retailers. Some of these retailers have a greater bargaining strength than PG. They may use this leverage to demand higher trade discounts, allowances or slotting fees, which could lead to reduced sales or profitability. Commodity cost and currency exchange rate instability places tremendous pressure on PGs business. Not to mention the unexpected and dramatic devaluations of currencies in developing or emerging markets reduce profits. Counterfeit goods Trade of counterfeits and pass-offs products is negatively affecting the growth of FMCG companies like PG. The top two brands within any category be it cosmetics, detergents, or soaps are effected the most by counterfeit. It is estimated that the loss due to counterfeit products convert into around  £6 billion ($8.5 billion). Furthermore, with the advent of digital channels there has been a surge in the sale of counterfeit products and online sales of these products increased by 9% in 2009. Besides revenue losses, counterfeits and pass-offs also affect the companys brand as they are unsafe. (Swot analysis Source: www.datamonitor.com ) The best strategies accomplish an organisation mission by exploiting an organisation opportunity and strength, while neutralizing its treat and avoiding its weakness. Ansoff matrix Ansoff matrix highlight four possible market strategy for the propose product. ansoff_matrix-124013-1.jpeg (http://www.brothersoft.com/ansoff-matrix-124013.html). Product development: as this is a new product in the range, much emphasis will be to offer the product to the existing customer base. Using the competitive advantages and brand image of previous products to lunch the propose product. With the companys focus on advertising, (worlds largest advertisers) it can use the advertising power to push the product to recognition. Sixty percent (60%) of the strategy will be on product development. Diversification: One of the opportunities available to the company is launching into new markets and developing economies. Forty percent (40%) of the strategy will be to launch the propose product in an entirely new market. Market Penetration: this occurs when the company sells its existing product in its existing market, perhaps through greater promotional efforts. As this is a new product this strategy might be considered in the future. Market Development: this occurs when the company tries to sell it existing products in new and emerging markets. This strategy as well might be for future considerations.

My dreams

My goal in life is to keep pushing myself because I know that I can achieve anything desire. Most would be happy going for a simple hike, perhaps a certain number of miles. Would not feel fulfilled. I would want to go all the way. What I would take from this beautiful day is the joy of finishing what I have begun. I also would know in my heart that pushed myself to the limits and it did not break me, what rather inspired me. My dream day would not take place on the easiest mountain or the most likely. I would set my sights on the most difficult, yet achievable destination.After all, success does have its limits just as the human body does. There have been many times in my life when I have been less than fit. Occasionally even less than â€Å"less than fit†. I am never proud bothers moments and I always swear that I will change how I live my life in the pursuit of fitness. Hiking is a very intense workout and it is extremely unforgiving. Sure, one could simply give up and turn around. T hats not who I am. I dream of a day when I can reach the top of my physical mountain as well as my proverbial mountain. Achieving this would push my body to its absolute limit ND strengthen my body and mind.This Thrall 2 would not be my end destination but a pattern that I could use for my entire life, enhancing my fitness level the further I would go. In conclusion, if I could wish for any one day it would be a day where I could reach the top of a mountain by hike. Do not take my dreams or wishes lightly. When I want something bad enough I go for it and give it everything. My dreams are big and difficult but they are doable. My personality is a stubborn one and my body is as well. Hiking would bring out both of these traits and it is this reason why I would want to do it.

The Broken Head And The Real Friendship - 778 Words

The Broken Head and the Real Friendship The day had been perfect, till I got the call†¦ I awoke to the smell of light, fluffy pancakes slathered in maple syrup, and greasy, fat bacon, just how I like it. â€Å"Shea, come downstairs and eat! We have to leave by 10,† My dad yelled from the kitchen. Our cousins had invited us to go to their lake house at Cedar Creek Lake; we accepted with enthusiasm because we had never seen it before. â€Å"Coming right down.† I shouted back to my dad. Hopping out of bed, I pulled on my favorite t-shirt and most comfortable shorts, stuffed some clothes into a small duffel bag, and pounded down the stairs. We left at 11, late as usual. All five of us squeezed in the silver Volvo, hip to hip, blasting country music as we ventured into the Dallas suburbs. At 11:35 AM, my phone buzzed and Cammy Davis’, my best friend Eliza’s mom, name lit up on the screen. This is odd, Cammy rarely calls me. Shouldn’t Eliza call me instead? Turning down the music, I answered the phone. â€Å"Hey Cammy! What’s up?† I asked. â€Å"Are you in Dallas?† She asked in a panicked voice, but I could hardly hear her because of the cacophony from the other line. I wondered where she was. â€Å"Burberry, Eliza’s horse, bucked her off and now Eliza is unconscious, she has been for the last six minutes. I am in an ambulance and we are going down to Presbyterian Hospital, come if you want. I just thought you should know.† The line crackled then went dead. In a serious but quiet voice IShow MoreRelatedSelf Reflection Essay1399 Words   |  6 Pagesout of our prayer centered worship night my heart cried out. These feelings will soon fade by the time this article actually post, but I feel like I need to reflect on it. I cried for the first time not about my lacking of faith, school, boys, or friendships, but the darkest parts of me that I try so hard to hide. 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